Neo-Expressionism Essays - Art Movements, Contemporary Art

Neo-Expressionism The term neo-expressionism describes the art movement that dominated the art market in the early and mid 1980's. The word "neo" refers to a revival of previous ideas or trends. Expressionism was a style from around the time of World War 1 that was highly personal, and was often executed with violent fervor. Neo-expressionism is similar, and also generally uses bright colors, recognizable objects (such as the human body) with distorted representation, great expression of emotion, and often commentary on social issues. It usually is not realistic. The common subject matter often deals with the negative aspects of life: vulgarities, violence, cynicism, and brutality. It is full of symbolism, and is considered figurative and gestural. A varied assemblage of young artists portrayed the human body in reaction and in contrast to the remote, introverted, and highly intellectualized abstract art production in the 1970's. The original goal of these artists was to depict emotional and psychological concerns of themselves and their times. This is often achieved by using heavy black outlines to express anger and hostility in addition to strong contrasts of the bold colors. Other artists explored color and abstraction to express spiritual and/or mystical ideas. Other common traits presented in paintings of this style included: a rejection of traditional standards of composition and design, the use of vivid but jarringly banal color harmonies, and a simultaneously tense and playful presentation of objects in a primitivist manner that communicates a sense of inner disturbance, tension, alienation, and ambiguity. This movement was also linked to and in part generated by new and aggressive methods of salesmanship, media promotion, and marketing on the part of dealers and galleries. It was controversial both in the quality of its art products and in the highly commercialized aspects of its presentation to the art-buying public. There are several artists that dominated and accurately represented neo-expressionism. Some of these artists are Sandro Chia, Georg Baselitz, Immendorff, Francoise Arthus, David Salle, and Terry Marks. The 5 elements of art are easy to recognize in this style of art. Line is used to create the shape that represents the objects of recognizable nature in the painting. The use of Color is quite obvious. Because most colors are bold and contrasting, a lot of times there aren't a lot of variations in value. The colors used often add to the non-realistic elements of the painting. Texture isn't a big issue in neo-expressionist paintings, though. Personally, I really like this style. It's easy for me to relate to it, and to create my own paintings representative of it. I like the colors used, and the freedom to express emotion and feeling. There really are no limits to what you can do with this style. Bibliography The 20th Century Art Book. London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1996. brommer, Gerald F. Discovering Art History. 3rd Ed. Worchester, MA: Davis Publications, Inc., 1997. Neo-expressionism. [Online] Available http://www.optonline.com/comptons/ceo/26699_Q.html, April 4, 2000. Encyclopaedia Britannica | article page. [Online] Available http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/idxref/7/0,5716,583318,00.html, April 4, 2ooo. ArtsNet Minnesota: inner Worlds Vocabulary. [Online] Available http://www.artsnetmn.org/inner/iwvocab.html, April 4, 2000 Avignon et Provence ? Francoise Arthus. [Online] Available http://www.avignon-et-provence.com/avi/gb/expo/artiste/arthus/loacoon.htm, April 4, 2000. Terry Marks. [Online] Available http://www.artincontext.org/LISTINGS/IMAGES/FULL/3/P5BV6O3T.htm, April 4, 2000.

LinkedIns Top 10 Skills of 2016 - What This List Means for You

LinkedIns Top 10 Skills of 2016 - What This List Means for You The day after I posted last week’s blog on What’s New on LinkedIn, LinkedIn unveiled its top skills to get you hired in 2017. This list is a very important one  for job seekers – especially for those with technical skills! In fact, all the top 10 skills globally and in the US are in the technical realm. Here are the global top 10 LinkedIn Skills: And here are the top 10 LinkedIn Skills for the United States: Only a handful of  non-technical items made  it to the list in a range of countries. Here are some (not all) of the skills that showed up: HR Benefits and Compensation (Australia, Brazil, and the UK) Compliance and Employment Law (France) Corporate Law and Governance (Australia, Singapore, France, and United Arab Emirates) Business Development and Relationship Management (Brazil) Public Policy and International Relations (China, Singapore, United Arab Emirates and South Africa) Business Intelligence (China) PR and Communications (India), Recruiting (Ireland and the Netherlands) Foreign Language Translation (Singapore) Renewable and Sustainable Energy (United Arab Emirates) A range of marketing skills (multiple countries). According to LinkedIn, some important trends are emerging: Data and cloud skills (which may include migration, cloud security, network overlays, containers, configuration management, database management, big data and analytics, cloud monitoring and visibility, hyper-convergence, and application optimization) top the list in almost every country across North America, the European Union and Asia. This trend is not surprising since there were 18 million cloud computing jobs globally in 2015! Statistical analysis and data mining also hold high rank. Companies need these cutting edge technological skills to stay competitive. If you’ve got ‘em, you’re golden. Demand for marketers and SEO/SEM professionals has shrunk. Apparently, there are so many people with these skills that the jobs are pretty much taken. Data presentation is on the list for the first time ever. Companies care not just that people have skills, but that they can communicate technical information clearly in reports (with charts, histograms and graphs) and on dashboards. Visualize, visualize, visualize! User interface design is on the rise, moving from #14 in 2014 to #10 in 2015 to #5 this year. Hmmm maybe this is why my last client seeking a UI position got 3 interviews and a position he loves within a month! UI design is what makes products, from computers and mobile devices to electronics and household appliances, easy for customers to use. Do you have any of these skills? If so, make sure to add them to your LinkedIn profile! Here’s how: In Edit Profile view, scroll down to your Skills section and click on the Add skill button: You will have the option to allow LinkedIn to suggest endorsements for you to your connections, see endorsement suggestions from your connections, and/or receive email notifications when connections endorse you. To add skills, begin typing your desired skill and you will be given a list to choose from; whenever possible, choose skills that auto-populate, since these are the skills most searched for, especially by recruiters. However, you do not need to stick to the list. You can add up to 50 skills. Remember, recruiters with LinkedIn Recruiter can search for people based on their skills. So don’t discount this section! And get endorsements too. The best way to do that is to endorse other people for their skills. LinkedIn is honoring the release of their top skills list with a week of free learning from October 24th to 30th! In the Week of Learning, you can take any of LinkedIn Learning’s 5,000+ courses for free. This is a rare opportunity so if you have any time in your schedule this week, take advantage of it! Want to know more about the methodology behind LinkedIn’s top skills list? Check out the Top Skills Methodology paragraph at the bottom of their article. It did not escape my attention that I do not have a single skill on any of LinkedIn’s top 10 lists. Thankfully, my job is to help other people promote the skills that they have. And it’s important to keep in mind that the skills on these lists are the ones sought after by recruiters and others doing their hiring through LinkedIn. So if you, like I do, have skills that are sought after by people other than recruiters, you’re still in good shape. Keep doing what you’re doing- that’s my plan!

Gross National Income of different countries Statistics Project

Gross National Income of different countries - Statistics Project Example Data was collected by the World Bank Organisation about the Gross National Income, expressed in purchasing power parity dollars to adjust for price level differences across countries. The data is not adjusted for inflation. There are values for each year from 2001 -2009 for each country. The numbers are measured in millions of dollars. Analysis is conducted taking the 2008 values only. The data has been acquired from the World Bank Organisation. The analysis is conducted on the data for the year 2008. The data is a sample of Gross National Income of selected 173 countries. The methods employed are analysis of summary statistics, analysis of frequency table and histogram and the analysis of line graph of Gross National Income. Results In accordance with the descriptive statistics demonstrated in Table 1, the following relation can be ascertained: Mean > Median > Mode = 12668 > 7270 > 4860 . This relationship shows that the data is positively skewed. This in turn means that the number of countries with low Gross National Income is higher as compared to those higher Gross National Income. Mean is a measure of the central tendency that is outlier biased. The statistical Median represents centre value of the data. Mode actually represents the majority values in the data. In this case the Median seems more appropriate to be focused as the central tendency as Mean seems to deliver an impression that the GNI of all countries is good whereas the Mode value paints an opposite picture. The Line Graph of Gross National Income asserts the selection of Median as a central tendency as the majority of spikes are almost at same level i.e. around 40,000. The exceptions are quiet evident in the above mentioned graph due to which the Mean cannot be selected as the central tendency. The value of Standard deviation is also high due to these exceptions. The Histogram (Figure 1) of the frequency table (Table 2) shows an asymptotic decay in the frequencies. As a result of which it can be claimed that the data is following Exponential Distribution. Conclusion It is concluded that as the rat e of Gross National Income is proceeding towards higher degree, the number of countries on the scale is diminishing. The frequency table (Table 2) highlights the lower Gross National Income recorded for the majority of countries. Part 2 Correlation and Regression: Data was

Summative Assessment Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Summative Assessment Project - Essay Example Notably, in some countries government regulates the water industries; however, the services of such companies are largely under private companies that are defined within a specific geographical space. Water companies are usually owned differently including by the local government, national government, private ownership, and co-operative. The local government ownership is the commonly structure of ownership known worldwide. The local governments often operate its systems through municipal companies or departments, or inter municipal companies. The local government outsourcing water management from private sectors has increase since 1990 (Pollard, 2008). In the United States, water companies are being managed by state governments that are equally operates as local government. Nonetheless, these companies are obligated to integrate water systems. In other words, they are required to supply, treat wastewater, and ensure sanitation in sewerage systems (Water quality †¦, 2001). Therefore, the water ownership structure must ensure that the water under supply meets water quality standards as well as the environmental standards that relate to wastewater. In the United States, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the standards set for drinking water. It standards for the pollution control have been developed jointly by the state environmental agencies and the EPA pursuant to clean water act (NATO Advanced Research †¦, at el., 2009). Despite the set standards and regulation set for water companies, these companies are still facing immense risks ranging from water resources management, rising cost, and changing population among others. Water and wastewater resources are facing numerous challenges across New Jersey as well as other parts of the country. The common challenges that are experienced in the

Analytical Application Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Analytical Application - Coursework Example Country Annual inflation rate Spot rate USA 3% N/A UK 4.2% 1.62 Substituting the values in the purchasing power parity formula Forward rate = ( 1 + 0.042 ) x 1.62 1 + 0.030 Forward rate = 1.639 Answer 2 The appreciation / (Depreciation) in the British pound using the interest rate parity theory is as follows Country Spot rate One year forward rate Appreciation / (Depreciation) Percentage UK 1.62 1.633 0.013 0.80% The appreciation / (Depreciation) in the British pound using the purchasing power parity theory is as follows Country Spot rate One year forward rate Appreciation / (Depreciation) Percentage UK 1.62 1.639 0.019 1.17% Answer 3 The forecasted forward rate using both interest rate parity theory and the purchasing power parity theory appears to be an unbiased estimate of the future spot rate of the currency. Interest rate is a very important factor in determining the relative exchange rate in an economy and in most countries the Federal Reserve and Central Banks publish the forw ard exchange rates of the foreign currencies using the prevailing interest rate in the economy. Similarly, the forecast of rate using the purchasing power parity theory can also be concluded as the unbiased estimation of the forward rate. Answer 4 According to the interest rate parity theory, the difference between the interest rate of two countries is equal to the differential between the forward exchange rate and the spot exchange rate of two countries. In the current global economy, interest rate parity theory plays a great part in connecting the interest rates and exchange rates of two countries. The origin of this theory can be associated to an article written by Walther Lotz in 1884 which was concerned with the Vienna forward market. In 1927, another renowned economist Keynes pointed out the fact that forward premiums are affected by the relative interest differential. There are certain assumptions which need to be considered. The securities, both domestic and foreign, are con sidered to be identical in terms of maturity time and risk. It is the prevailing interest rate on these securities that is utilized in the interest rate parity calculation. In addition, it is also assumed that there are no capital controls or transaction cost and market imperfections. Purchasing power parity theory is another theory widely used in determining the forward rates of a particular currency. As per this theory, when a country’s inflation rate rises, the demand for its currency declines as its exports also declines due to the higher prices. As a corresponding impact, the importers and firms in that country start putting more emphasis on the imported goods and other items. These two factors in combination cast a downward impact on the high inflation of a country’s currency. Inflation rates do not remain constant between countries which cause international trade patterns and exchange rates to adjust accordingly. There are two forms of purchasing power parity th eory. One is absolute form and the other is relative form. The

An argument for Corporate Social Responsibility and Ethical businesses

An argument for Corporate Social Responsibility and Ethical businesses It all started in the eighteen century, with a Scottish philosopher of political economics, Adam Smith, who expressed that the free interaction of organisations and the public would meet the needs and desires of society. This responsibility was then termed Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and started an evolution from the 1950s and further expanded during the 1970s. The evolution and expansion of CSR is a direct result of ever growing economies. Corporate Social Responsibility is a model for incorporating ethical business regulations into the business model. This model provides corporations a framework to embrace a responsibility towards the community, employees, environment and other service users. The three areas of main accounting are as follows; Financial success or profit Contributions to livable environment Contribution to solving social problems. A corporation incorporated each area into their business model and culture, generating growth for all three areas using their framework. An initial financial profit setback will be met when applying the framework, an exception being if the businesses have a direct business involvement with social issues. Regardless of whether business or government, leaders in all sectors have an opportunity to improve current issues and solve business problems. Community needs can be opportunities to utilise business technology and provide collaborative efforts to serve community needs. The Internet revolution has provided the public the chance to empower themselves and with this in mind customers, empowered by the internet, are researching corporate citizenship. The times of word-of-mouth and traditional media sources, such as television, is being surpassed by the number of growing search engines, and the number of customers using the Internet to research companies through independent sources is growing. Corporations should look for new ways to inform consumers about their social responsible actions and should realise that a great number of consumers will be sceptical and will check up on any claims. A company with good CSR policies, which demands that commercial success, be gained through positive practices that aim to promote general welfare, such as more jobs, better salaries, environmentally responsible activity and local interaction, tend to do a lot better then companies who do not. Success, after all, is not only measured in monetary terms but also the corporations impact on the community, on its customers and on the environment. Why bother? There are a number of valid reasons for this question, including that CSR is a good business Ethics. Business ethics regards what is morally right and wrong with a companys activities and behaviours. The likelihood of company to transact without creating some sort of environmental or social impact is very small, might this be of positive or negative impact. A key point of CSR is that it recognises the responsibility that companies have to take into account of those impacts. CSR is a framework for thinking about business ethics, making ethical decisions and working within the law, it says a company responsibilities reach further than just making a profit. Another reason is that CSR means engaging with Stakeholders (people whose lives and livelihoods are impacted by the companys activities). CSR in this case means that a company will make a decision with society (the Stakeholders are a broad and varied group) expectations in mind. Furthermore, the corporation will recognise not only th e opinions but also the values that are important to the Stakeholders and will actively engage with its Stakeholders to understand their aspirations, goals and concerns. There are many different ways a corporation can support a social initiative and still make profits. A good example is the Marriott Corporation (ref), who was motivated by a desire to help the community while still helping the bottom line, by training and hiring 6000 persons on welfare. Marriott was still able to cut costs and increase productivity. It can be in a companys best interest to provide a needed service within a low income area. By incorporating a service that improves the resources and infrastructure of a community, it can offer an economic return for the organisation through recognition or direct community investments. In this sense, a business has an obligation to both profit and serve the community, for all stakeholders involved. This shows that when a company practice in good CSR, it gains better reputation and brand image meaning an extension of better sales, more investors and customer loyalty plate form. This is supported by the survey done by Hill Knowlton/Harris (2001) showed that 91 % of all customer survey said that they would switch to other companies, if the corporation had a negative image. How does CSR work? Corporation Social Responsibility must first be sold as a developing a value proposition to its own board, as it plays an important role in helping to shape and develop the value proposition. A value proposition being the corporeal results a customer gets from using the companys products or services. Aligned with social dimension, this helps provide guidance and direction to utilise the energy and enthusiasm for CSR. By identifying where companies can be socially responsible while continue to pursuit long term competitiveness of its business, companies can utilise the wider community with its own set of expertise. This framework should whilst reinforcing its core business strategies also attempt to transform value chain activities. This is important as local customers are an important source of sales and improving a companys reputation, the company itself will find it easier to recruit workforce and lead a better local authority relation. The best way to assess whether CSR is working and related to the corporation is to set CSR measurability and performance metric (differ for every company). An example of CSR metric are Key Performance indicators (KPIs) using a balance score card to measure factors such as environmental performance and benchmarking against other companies in the same industry spectrum. Advantages and Disadvantages Corporations, although are enterprises with purpose of commercial pursuits, are powerful and influential institutions. However, one must not forget that their processes have a very public impact and affect many lives through their actions and behaviours. For this reason, it is very important that they act and behave responsibly and CRS policies should be there to guide corporation to Ethical path. More importantly for corporation, this responsibility can make a worthwhile contribution to society as irresponsible business can be harmful in equal measure. Companies without regard for their responsibilities and act/behave in an unethical ways that is damming to the worlds natural resources, will earn bad reputation which could not only loss profit or even destroy the company in their home ground but also the impact could be greater for international companies as their restriction could expand to many countries across the world. As more and more Stakeholders are demanding accountability CSR now involves more complex decision making. This makes the companies grow from the single dimensional thinking of maximising financial profit and concern more about the economic, social and environmental aspects of corporation impacts. For this to continue to be possible a firmed knowledge of CSR is critical, as learning about CSR means learning to manage CSR initiatives and engage with Stakeholders enabling managers to kept CSR alive within the company. Another reason for learning about CSR is so that ethical misconduct within the workplace can be recognised by employees, managers and Stakeholders, as this is far too common. This recognition could open a gateway to taking action to address the misconduct. Everyone can benefit from Corporate Social Responsibility giving compelling reasons for customer, supplies and community to learn about CSR so as to protect and promote their interest in relation to corporate activities. Although, many organisations such as United Nations (UN) are all attempting to regulate Corporate Social Responsibility through their framework, it is still voluntary corporation action and goes beyond regulations and laws. This unfortunately means that CSR lack of formal regulation and is not standardised and therefore often not possible to compare CSR performance in detail. Appallingly CSR is misused as a market ploy and reveals facts such as some company, whose very existence is considered to be socially irresponsible, such as British American Tobacco Corporation, are being recognised for performing some socially responsible acts. This is due to companies being given the right to shape and define CSR increasing the risk of abuse of power. Conclusion Although, Corporation Social Responsibility can come across as an idealistic idea, especially as it is voluntary process and lack regulation and therefore subjected to abuse of power by decision making companies in the social domain, it actually produces favourable results if applied positively. Corporations and governments are powerful and influential institutes and can therefore make a significant difference to society. This difference whether these institutes impacts positively or negatively, will depend on the contribution to better thinking about what is Ethically right or wrong. This knowledge can produce decisions and behaviours that are recognised by stakeholders as unethical and help managers assess the changes needed to manage CSR. A good CSR framework aligns community efforts and charitable efforts with core business strategy, expertise and market needs. This in turn helps build up a companys social capital and is likely to bring returns including financial returns.

The Daimon and Anti-Self Concepts in Per Amica Silentia Lunae by William Yeats :: Per Amica Silentia Lunae William Yeats Essays

The Daimon and Anti-Self Concepts in Per Amica Silentia Lunae by William Yeats In July of 1914 Yeats began communicating during seances with a spirit which he called his "daimon," one Leo Africanus, a Renaissance geographer and traveller. At Leo's request, through the voice of the medium, Yeats began a written correspondence in which he would write questions and observations to Leo, and Leo would answer through Yeats's hand. This correspondence would prove influential in Yeats's evolving concept of the sources of artistic inspiration as emanating from the interaction between the physical and the spiritual worlds. This paper will explore the growth of the daimon concept out of Yeats's divided-self theory during his correspondence with Leo Africanus and then its explication in the 1917 Per Amica Silentia Lunae. Background From the beginning of his literary career Yeats, like many authors in this age of a dawning awareness of modern psychology and concept of the sub-conscious, had been fascinated with the concept of an divided self or anti-self or a self which is covered by a mask or "pose." In these early John Sherman stories, the the dreamy, unsophisticated John Sherman is tempted by the elegant, citified, and High Church Rev. William Howard. In the Rosa Alchemica stories of 1897, we are introduced to two characters who will remain staples of Yeats's oeuvre: the pious, conventional John Aherne who is "educated" and tempted by the mysterious Michael Robartes, with his secrets of the "Order of the Alchemical Rose." In On Baile's Strand (1904) the instinctive, active warrior Cuchulain struggles against the wiles of the crafty, domesticated ruler Conchubar. By the 1900's, Yeats is using the metaphor of the mask to portray this dichotomy in man. "The mask," Richard Ellmann says, "had come to occupy in his system during the first decade of this century the position which the rose had held in it during the 'nineties" (190). In 1907 he begins The Player Queen, in which each character seeks an antithetical self, and he introduces it with the explicit song "The Mask." Whatever exactly "the mask" is--an alter-ego, a heroic ideal, a protective shield--it is a metaphor for an internal struggle, a psychological process. The next step would be to give this process more cosmic implications by making the struggle involve an outside force, a representative from the "spirit world" who could put one in contact with the "beyond." This would happen when Yeats discovered his Daimon. The Daimon and Anti-Self Concepts in Per Amica Silentia Lunae by William Yeats :: Per Amica Silentia Lunae William Yeats Essays The Daimon and Anti-Self Concepts in Per Amica Silentia Lunae by William Yeats In July of 1914 Yeats began communicating during seances with a spirit which he called his "daimon," one Leo Africanus, a Renaissance geographer and traveller. At Leo's request, through the voice of the medium, Yeats began a written correspondence in which he would write questions and observations to Leo, and Leo would answer through Yeats's hand. This correspondence would prove influential in Yeats's evolving concept of the sources of artistic inspiration as emanating from the interaction between the physical and the spiritual worlds. This paper will explore the growth of the daimon concept out of Yeats's divided-self theory during his correspondence with Leo Africanus and then its explication in the 1917 Per Amica Silentia Lunae. Background From the beginning of his literary career Yeats, like many authors in this age of a dawning awareness of modern psychology and concept of the sub-conscious, had been fascinated with the concept of an divided self or anti-self or a self which is covered by a mask or "pose." In these early John Sherman stories, the the dreamy, unsophisticated John Sherman is tempted by the elegant, citified, and High Church Rev. William Howard. In the Rosa Alchemica stories of 1897, we are introduced to two characters who will remain staples of Yeats's oeuvre: the pious, conventional John Aherne who is "educated" and tempted by the mysterious Michael Robartes, with his secrets of the "Order of the Alchemical Rose." In On Baile's Strand (1904) the instinctive, active warrior Cuchulain struggles against the wiles of the crafty, domesticated ruler Conchubar. By the 1900's, Yeats is using the metaphor of the mask to portray this dichotomy in man. "The mask," Richard Ellmann says, "had come to occupy in his system during the first decade of this century the position which the rose had held in it during the 'nineties" (190). In 1907 he begins The Player Queen, in which each character seeks an antithetical self, and he introduces it with the explicit song "The Mask." Whatever exactly "the mask" is--an alter-ego, a heroic ideal, a protective shield--it is a metaphor for an internal struggle, a psychological process. The next step would be to give this process more cosmic implications by making the struggle involve an outside force, a representative from the "spirit world" who could put one in contact with the "beyond." This would happen when Yeats discovered his Daimon.

Linguistics Plus Essay

A. The Backround Of Study In the preceding chapters , linguistics has been discussed mainly as the scientific study of languages. According to this view, linguistic is a theoritical, abstract, academic subject. It describes the nature of human language activity in scientific terms and linguistics are see to belong to different schools of thought and to hold competing linguistic theories. We have seen what this view of linguistics has to contribute to language teaching. There is another view of linguistics which cuts across all schools of linguistic thought and is common ground among all linguistics. In this view,linguistics is abody of attitudes and knowledge which result from the study of things like nature of language as a communicative, social activity : language in the individual , his speech mechanism and mental capacities for language : language in society : varieties of language , the rigorous description of particular languages , etc . This common ground the linguistics is immediately relevant to whole field of language teaching . B. The Formulation Of Study Based on the backrgound of study that explained, we formulate some problems that will be explained in this discussion, there are : 1. What is the meaning of psycholinguistics? 2. What is language acquisition? 3. is the first language learning the same as first language acuisition? 4. What is the interference from L1 in learning L2? C. The Perpose Of Writing To obtain a focused, it is necessary to tell the purpose of this paper. The purposes of writing this paper are: 1. Make the readers know about Psycholinguistic , language acquisition , First and second language, Motivation in L2 learning , and Language Interference. 2. Knowing the different between First and Secong Language D. Research Of Methodology. There are many methods that can be used in educational research, such as historical method, descriptive method, experimental method etc. We use the description method in order to meet the purpose of the research. CHAPTER 2 LINGUISTIC PLUS (CHAPTER 6 IN BOOK) A. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PSIKOLINGUISTIK As its name suggests, psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. Some of these are: how language is received and produced by language user : our memory span of language: motivation in language learning : how L1 Habits interface with L2 learning billingualism and mental development : the use of language in concept formation; and language acquistion or development. Seperti namanya, psikolinguistik adalah studi lapangan yang menggabungkan psikologi dan linguistik. Istilah itu sendiri diciptakan pada tahun 1951. Meskipun penelitian telah terjadi bahkan pada abad kesembilan belas dalam bentuk studi perkembangan bahasa. Ini mencakup berbagai macam topik yang menarik bagi guru bahasa. Beberapa di antaranya adalah: bagaimana bahasa diterima dan dihasilkan oleh pengguna bahasa: memori kita rentang bahasa: motivasi dalam belajar bahasa: bagaimana Kebiasaan L1 antarmuka dengan pembelajaran belajar L2 dan perkembangan mental: penggunaan bahasa dalam pembentukan konsep, dan akuisisi bahasa atau pembangunan. B. LANGUAGE ACQUISTION TRANSISI BAHASA The last mentioned topic is currently being much investigated by TG grammarians because their linguistic theory makes such on the language producing ability of human beings. It is therefore of interest to them, as it is to teachers, to find out how language is acquired. ( it may be noted at this point that they make a distinction between language acquisition or development and language learning . The first language or mother tongue is acquired, while the second language is learned. ) Topik terakhir yang disebutkan saat ini sedang diselidiki oleh banyak tatabahasawan tradisional grammar karena teori linguistik mereka membuatnya seperti bahasa dapat menghasilkan kemampuan manusia. Oleh karena itu sangat menarik bagi mereka, terutama untuk guru, untuk mengetahui bagaimana bahasa diperoleh. (Mungkin terdapat pada bahasan ini bahwa mereka membuat perbedaan antara penguasaan bahasa atau pengembangan dan pembelajaran bahasa asli atau bahasa ibu yang langsung diperoleh, sedangkan bahasa asing harus dipelajari. ) There are two theories of language acquisition: the cognitive-code learning theory f-voured by the transformational generative linguists and the habit-formation theory of the structural linguists. The habit-formation theory is in effect the aplication of learning theory to language acquisition. It involves conditioning and reinforcement to shape a response until it is like the model . An example mat make the process clear. An infant may accidentally produce what sound like â€Å"mama† ,on his babbling and the mother reinforces this by smiling , kissing, cuddling him.. This encourages him to produce the sounds again and the nearer they approach the word â€Å"mama† , the more pleasure the mother shows until the child learns to say the word correctly every time with reference to her. The whole process is described as â€Å" shaping† the response and strengthening it by selective reinforcement. The response is encouraged to recur or strengthened by the smile or nod , or whatever is reinforcing to the child. Repeated occurences of the response from habit. Imitation plays as important a role as repetition in the theory. The child imitates the adults he hears and is again reinforced for correct responses. This theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. Ada dua teori akuisisi bahasa: teori belajar kode kognitif mempelajari teori f-voured oleh ahli bahasa transformasi generatif linguistik dan teori-kebiasaan hasil pembentukan ahli bahasa struktural. Teori formasi kebiasaan yang pada kenyataannya aplikasi dari teori belajar akuisisi bahasa. Ini melibatkan pengkondisian dan penguatan untuk membentuk respon sampai seperti model atau contoh yang ada, misalnya sebuah kaset untuk membuatnya sebagai contoh. Contoh lain adalah Bayi yang dapat menghasilkan sebuah kata yang terdengar seperti â€Å"mama†, saat mengoceh dan ibunya memperkuat ini dengan memberikan senyuman, mencium,atau memeluk dia . Hal ini dapat mendorong dia untuk menghasilkan suara lagi dan semakin dekat dengan kata â€Å"mama† yang sebenarnya, respon senang yang ditunjukan ibunya itu terus ditunjukan hinngga anak belajar mengucapkan kata kata dengan. Seluruh proses yang digambarkan sebagai â€Å"pembentuk† respon dan penguatan dengan penguatan selektif. Respon yang didorong untuk muncul kembali atau diperkuat oleh senyum atau anggukan, atau apapun yang dapat memperkuat kepada anak untuk melakukan sesuatu. Kejadian yang diulang dari respon dan dari kebiasaan. Permainan meniru sama penting peranannya sebagai teori. Anak meniru orang dewasa, ia mendengar lagi dan diperkuat oleh respon yang diberikan orang disekitarnya. Teori pemerolehan bahasa didasarkan pada pandangan bahwa bahasa adalah perilaku yang dihasilkan dari kebiasaan dan kebiasaan yang dibentuk oleh praktek dan pengulangan. The cognitive-code learning theory states that language is rule-governed behaviour and that in language acquisition, the infant learns the set of rules that will produce the sentences of the language. How does he arrive at the set of rules? TG grammarians say human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), which enables the child to form a series of hypotheses about the language which he hears , as he grows up. At each stage in his language development he tests his hypothesis (the set of rules he has formulated so far) against what he hears ( the language data) and revises it accordingly , until he reaches adult competence. But what does the LAD consist of? The theory is that it consists of those linguistic universals to be found the deep, deep structure of all languages. There is no agreement or certainty yet about what these universals are apart from the  fact that they must be certain abstract syntactic and semantic categories and relationships, though there may be a neurophysiological basis in the brain. Examples of such relationships which have been postulated are: those between noun and verb as in case grammar; that between subject and predicate; and catagories like NP , VP , Adv. These universals are said to be present in the structure of all languages but each language realises them in different way in surface structure and language learning consists in learning how it is done in that particular language . The linguists are making cross-cultural studies of language acquisition in order to get evidence of linguistic universals, but the data collected so far are still sketchy though certain features in language appear in about the same sequence and at about the same age all over the world. Teori Kode kognitif belajar menyatakan bahwa bahasa adalah aturan aturan perilaku dan bahwa dalam akuisisi bahasa, bayi mempelajari seperangkat aturan yang akan menghasilkan kalimat bahasa. Bagaimana ia bisa sampai pada seperangkat aturan? Tatabahasawan TG mengatakan manusia dilahirkan dengan perangkat penguasaan bahasa (LAD), yang memungkinkan anak untuk membentuk serangkaian hipotesis tentang bahasa yang ia dengar, saat ia tumbuh. Pada setiap tahap dalam perkembangan bahasa, ia menguji hipotesis tersebut (seperangkat aturan yang telah dirumuskan sejauh ini) terhadap apa yang ia dengar (data bahasa) dan merevisi (menerjemahkan artinya), sampai ia mencapai kompetensi dewasa. Tapi apa saja penyusun LAD itu ? Tidak ada kesepakatan atau kepastian tentang apa saja penyusun LAD tersebut dan tak ada yang terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa orang orang universal linguistik harus memastikan kategori sintaksis dan semantik abstrak, meskipun mungkin ada dasar neurofisiologi di otak. Contoh hubungan tersebut yang telah disebutkan adalah antara nomina dan verba seperti dalam tata bahasa, bahwa antara subjek dan predikat, dan kategori seperti NP, VP, Adv. Itu dikatakan terdapat dalam struktur dari semua bahasa, tetapi setiap bahasa menempatkan mereka dengan cara yang berbeda dalam struktur permukaan dan pembelajaran tertentu. Para ahli bahasa membuat studi lintas-budaya , untuk mendapatkan bukti yang umum tentang linguistik, tetapi data yang dikumpulkan sejauh ini masih samar meskipun fitur tertentu dalam bahasa muncul di sekitar urutan yang sama dan pada sekitar usia yang sama di seluruh dunia . The teacher of second language needs to take of these two theories of language acquisition since they have given rise to schools of thought on language teaching. If language acquisition is a matter of habit formation, then the language teacher must concentrate on performance. Let the pupils imitate a model and give them plenty of pattern drill to establish habits of behaviour. Reinforce them gor correct responses and elimitate wrong responses by a lack of reinforcement. Let them learn inductively, inferring the rules for themselves after much practice rather than receiving the rules for explanations at the begining. If, on the other hand, language acquisition is a matter of learning a code, then the language teacher must ensure that the pupils internalise the rules yhat will enable them to produce sentences. Explanations of the sentences structures and explicit knowledge of the rules must then play a larger rule in language teaching. Para guru bahasa kedua perlu mengambil dari kedua teori pemerolehan bahasa karena mereka telah melahirkan aliran pemikiran pengajaran bahasa. Jika akuisisi bahasa adalah masalah pembentukan kebiasaan, maka guru bahasa harus berkonsentrasi pada kinerja. Biarkan siswa meniru model dan memberi mereka banyak bor pola untuk membangun kebiasaan perilaku. Memperkuat mereka tanggapan gor benar dan elimitate tanggapan yang salah oleh kurangnya penguatan. Biarkan mereka belajar induktif, menyimpulkan aturan untuk diri mereka sendiri setelah banyak latihan daripada menerima aturan untuk penjelasan di awal. Jika, di sisi lain, penguasaan bahasa adalah masalah belajar kode, maka guru bahasa harus memastikan bahwa siswa menginternalisasi yhat aturan akan memungkinkan mereka untuk menghasilkan kalimat. Penjelasan dari struktur kalimat dan pengetahuan eksplisit aturan kemudian harus memainkan aturan yang lebih besar dalam pengajaranbahasa. How is the language teacher to decide between the two theories of language learning? What grammatical theory is most useful to language teachers? To answer these questions, i would just like to refer the reader to the paper by J. B Carroll that i cited in chapter 1. In that paper he says. â€Å"it would be pretentious to try to express an opinion on which of the various grammatical theories is most vailed. Different grammatical theories have somewhat different goals†¦ in general. I believe that language teacher should evaluate grammatical theories in terms of the degree to which they comform to the linguistic habits that actually enable a language user to speak and understand the language†. Bagaimana guru bahasa untuk memutuskan antara dua teori pembelajaran bahasa? Apa teori tata bahasa yang paling berguna untuk guru bahasa? Untuk menjawab pertanyaan ini, saya hanya ingin merujuk pembaca untuk kertas oleh JB Carroll yang saya dikutip dalam bab 1. Dalam kertas yang katanya. â€Å"Itu akan sok mencoba untuk mengekspresikan pendapat yang dari teori gramatikal berbagai paling vailed. Teori tata bahasa yang berbeda memiliki tujuan yang agak berbeda †¦ secara umum. Saya percaya bahwa guru bahasa harus mengevaluasi teori tata bahasa dalam hal sejauh mana mereka comform ke kebiasaan linguistik yang benar-benar memungkinkan pengguna bahasa untuk berbicara dan mengerti bahasa â€Å". As for theories of language learning. Carroll suggest a synthesis of the two. I am inclined to agree with him that neither a pure â€Å"audiolingual habit theory† nor a pure â€Å"cognitive-code learning theory† can be comprehensive and correct. Each of the theories contains elements of truth, and each therefore to some degree wrong or incomplete. We need to extract what is valuable for each theory and put them together. Carroll calls the synthesis â€Å"cognitive habit-formation theory†. Adapun teori belajar bahasa. Carroll menyarankan sintesis dari dua. Saya cenderung setuju dengan dia bahwa baik murni â€Å"kebiasaan teori audiolingual† atau murni â€Å"kognitif-kode teori belajar† bisa tidak lengkap dan benar. Setiap teori mengandung unsur kebenaran, dan masing-masing karena itu untuk beberapa derajat yang salah atau tidak lengkap. Kita perlu untuk mengambil apa yang berharga bagi teori masing-masing dan menempatkan mereka bersama-sama. Carroll menyebut sintesis â€Å"kognitif kebiasaan-formasi teori†. The audiolingual habit theory is correct in that language behaviour is partly a matter habits. The audiolingual method with its emphasis on pattern practice and formations of habits fell out of favour because the theory made the wrong assumtions about that kinds of habits to form and how to form them. Instead of forming habits that have to do. For instance, with substituting words in sentences or with changing one kind of sentences into another. teacher sould form functional habits. The diffferent between the two is that the former takes no account of language ude in actual situations (where is the occasion for substitution for tables in real life outside the classroom?) while the latter does. For example, in teaching commands and requests, it is not enough to present the learners with statements to be changed into commands or requests. The stimulus is the sentence in the case. In forming fumctional habits the stimulus is the situations, the intentions and the listener. In situation A, if you need help you just shout â€Å"help! † ; in situation B, you may say, â€Å"please help me† or â€Å"could you helm me? † ; in situation C, you may say, â€Å"would you mind helping me? † and so on. Teori Kebiasaan audiolingual benar dalam perilaku bahasa adalah kebiasaan sebagian materi. Metode audiolingual dengan penekanan pada praktek pola dan formasi dari kebiasaan jatuh dari nikmat karena teori membuat assumtions salah tentang hal itu jenis kebiasaan untuk membentuk dan bagaimana membentuk mereka. Alih-alih membentuk kebiasaan yang harus dilakukan. Misalnya, dengan mengganti kata-kata dalam kalimat atau dengan mengubah satu jenis kalimat menjadi lain. Guru arwah membentuk kebiasaan fungsional. The diffferent antara keduanya adalah bahwa mantan tidak memperhitungkan bahasa ude dalam situasi yang sebenarnya (di mana merupakan kesempatan untuk substitusi untuk tabel dalam kehidupan nyata di luar kelas?) Sedangkan yang kedua tidak. Sebagai contoh, dalam mengajar perintah dan permintaan, itu tidak cukup untuk menyajikan peserta didik dengan pernyataan yang akan diubah menjadi perintah atau permintaan. Stimulus adalah kalimat dalam kasus ini. Dalam membentuk kebiasaan fumctional stimulus adalah situasi, maksud dan pendengar. Dalam situasi A, jika Anda memerlukan bantuan Anda hanya berteriak â€Å"membantu! â€Å", Dalam situasi B, Anda mungkin berkata, â€Å"tolong bantu saya† atau â€Å"bisa Anda helm saya? â€Å", Dalam situasi C, Anda mungkin berkata, â€Å"bisakah kau membantu saya â€Å"dan sebagainya?. Carroll also points out that the audingual habit theory wrongly assumed that practice and repetion were crucial factors in the formation of habits. Although practice and repetition have certain roles to play, they are not crucial in learning. Succesive repetition of the same response is, in fact, generally the wrong way to â€Å"stamp in† a habit; there are few kinds of learning where this is effective. Evocation of the response on a number of aperiodic, widely-spaced occasions, with interpolation of different material in the intervals, is a much more effective method has been insufficiently employed in pattern drills. Carroll juga menunjukkan bahwa teori kebiasaan audingual salah diasumsikan bahwa praktek dan pengulangan adalah faktor penting dalam pembentukan kebiasaan. Meskipun praktek dan pengulangan memiliki peran tertentu untuk bermain, mereka tidak penting dalam belajar. Pengulangan berturut dari respon yang sama, pada kenyataannya, umumnya cara yang salah untuk â€Å"cap di† kebiasaan, ada beberapa jenis belajar di mana ini efektif. Kebangkitan dari respon pada sejumlah aperiodik, luas-spasi kesempatan, dengan interpolasi dari bahan yang berbeda dalam interval, adalah metode yang jauh lebih efektif telah kurang digunakan dalam latihan pola. The element of truth in the cognitive-codelearning theory is that a knowledge of the facts and formal rules of the language can really be of help in guiding the learner to form the right language habits. However, knowledge of the rule alone is of on avail unless the learner is given opportunities to form the habits in the way suggested above. Forthermore, the facts of the language should be presented in a form easy to understand, and appropriate to the learner’s age and ability. Abstract rule should be illustrated with a number of concrete examples. Unsur kebenaran dalam teori kognitif-codelearning adalah bahwa pengetahuan tentang fakta-fakta dan aturan formal bahasa benar-benar dapat membantu dalam membimbing peserta didik untuk membentuk kebiasaan bahasa yang tepat. Namun, pengetahuan tentang aturan saja dari pada berhasil kecuali pelajar diberikan kesempatan untuk membentuk kebiasaan dalam cara yang disarankan di atas. Forthermore, fakta bahasa harus disajikan dalam bentuk yang mudah dimengerti, dan sesuai dengan usia peserta didik dan kemampuan. Aturan abstrak harus diilustrasikan dengan sejumlah contoh konkret. C. FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA PERTAMA DAN KEDUA A question often discussed with regard to second language learning is whether it is the same as first language acquisition. The answer depends on the stage at which the second language is learned. If it is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. First of all, the child is exposed to the first language all his waking hours while he probably hears the second language only during the class hour. Secondly, there is a big difference in motivation. A child learning his first language is strongly motivated because his needs and wishes are satisfied by the use of language and his control of his environment and himself increases with his increasing mastery of his mother tongue. Not only this, but emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. Thirdly, as the child learns the first language he is also learning the concepts, while in learning the second language he seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. Finally, the habits established in first language learning tend to inhabit and interfere with his learning of the second language. It is also claimed that there is a critical period for language acquisition which extends up to puberty. But according to Carroll: â€Å"the evidence for a ‘critical period’ and decline in language acquisition ability during the middle school years is not strong, however, and even if there is some decline. I am not persuaded that one must appeal to biology to explain it. † (p. 109) Krashen has since confirmed Carroll’s view. Suatu pertanyaan yang sering dibahas terkait dengan pembelajaran bahasa kedua adalah apakah pembelajarannya sama dengan akuisisi bahasa pertama. Jawabannya tergantung pada tahap di mana bahasa kedua dipelajari. Jika dipelajari pada usia dini sebelum bahasa pertama benar-benar terkuasai, atau hampir bersamaan dengan bahasa pertama, maka pembelajaran bahasa kedua sejajar dengan pembelajar bahasa pertama. Jika dipelajari pada tahap berikutnya dalam bentuk sekolah formal, ada beberapa perbedaan yang diamati. Pertama-tama, anak terkena bahasa pertama selama dia terjaga sementara dia mungkin mendengar bahasa kedua hanya selama jam sekolah. Kedua, ada perbedaan besar dalam motivasi. Seorang anak belajar bahasa pertamanya sangat termotivasi karena kebutuhan dan keinginannya terpuaskan dengan manfaat bahasa dan kendali lingkungannya dan dirinya sendiri meningkat dengan meningkatnya penguasaan â€Å"bahasa ibunya†. Tidak hanya itu, tapi hubungan emosional dan sosial terciptaka oleh penggunaanya terhadap bahasa pertama. Bahasa kedua jarang memenuhi fungsi tersebut bila dipelajari sebagai subjek dalam kurikulum. Ketiga, ketika anak belajar bahasa pertama dia juga belajar konsep, sedangkan dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua jarang ia harus membentuk konsep-konsep baru kecuali konsep-konsep itu asing bagi budayanya sendiri. Akhirnya, kebiasaan-kebiasaan pada pembelajaran bahasa pertama cenderung menghuni dan mengganggu pembelajaran bahasa kedua. Hal ini juga menyatakan bahwa ada periode kritis bagi penguasaan bahasa yang meluas sampai masa puber. Tetapi menurut Carroll: â€Å"bukti untuk ‘periode kritis’ dan penurunan kemampuan akuisisi bahasa selama pertengahan masa sekolah tidak kuat, bagaimanapun, dan bahkan jika ada beberapa penurunan. Saya tidak yakin bahwa seseorang harus menarik biologi untuk menjelaskannya â€Å"(hal. 109). Krashen sejak mengkonfirmasi pandangan Carroll. There is one respect in which learning a first language is similar to learning a second language: it is in the process itself. Just as the young child makes generalisations and says â€Å"foots† or â€Å"goed†, so the Malay learner of English as a second language may over-generalise and say â€Å"foot of the sky† when he means the horizon. In second language learning there is also imitation and modelling, just as there is in first language learning. Ada suatu kecocokan dimana pembelajaran bahasa pertama mirip dengan belajar bahasa kedua: yaitu dalam proses itu sendiri. Sama seperti anak muda yang membuat generalisasi dan mengatakan â€Å"foots† atau â€Å"goed†, begitu pula pelajar Melayu yang belajar Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua mungkin over-generalisasi dan mengatakan â€Å"foots of the sky† ketika ia bermaksud mengatakan â€Å"the horizon†. Dalam pembelajaran bahasa kedua ada juga imitasi dan modeling, seperti yang ada dalam pembelajaran bahasa pertama. D. MOTIVATION IN L2 LEARNING MOTIVASI DALAM PEMBELAJARAN L2 It was mentioned above that there was a difference in motivation between first and second language learning. It is the lack of motivation that produces little or no difference in student performance in response to improved teaching methods or materials. This problem of motivation in second language learning has been studied and two kinds of motivation have been distinguished. One is called instrumental motivation: this is when the student learns the second language for instrumental purposes. For example, it may be a compulsory school subject or it may be required for post –graduate work, for his career or for travel abroad. There is no desire on his part to go beyond the language as a tool to fulfil rather limited purposes. The other kind of motivation is called integrative. In this case, the student learns the second language with the desire to identify himself with the native speakers and to enrich his life by contact with another culture. It was found that students with integrative motivation have greater success at learning the second language than those with merely instrumental motivation. Telah disebutkan di atas bahwa ada suatu perbedaan dalam motivasi antara belajar bahasa pertama dan kedua. Ini adalah kekurangan dari motivasi bahwa motivasi menghasilkan sedikit atau tidak adanya perbedaan terhadap prestasi siswa dalam menanggapi metode pengajaran atau materi. Masalah motivasi dalam belajar bahasa kedua ini telah dipelajari dan dua jenis motivasi telah dibedakan. Satu disebut motivasi instrumental: yaitu ketika siswa belajar bahasa kedua untuk tujuan instrumental. Sebagai contoh, mungkin suatu subjek sekolah yang wajib atau mungkin diperlukan untuk tugas pasca sarjana, untuk karirnya atau untuk perjalanan ke luar negeri. Tidak adan keinginan pada bagiannya yang melampaui bahasa sebagai alat untuk memenuhi tujuan yang terbatas. Jenis lain dari motivasi disebut integratif. Dalam hal ini, siswa belajar bahasa kedua dengan keinginan untuk mengidentifikasi dirinya dengan penutur asli dan memperkaya hidupnya dengan kontak dengan budaya lain. Ditemukan bahwa siswa dengan motivasi integratif memiliki keberhasilan yang lebih besar dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua dibandingkan dengan motivasi instrumental. E. LANGUAGE INTERFERENCE GANGGUAN BAHASA Another aspect of psycholinguistics that is directly relevant to second language teacher has been touched upon in discussing contrastive analysis. That is, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. The theory is that in learning L1 certain habits of perceiving and performing have to be established and the old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on. We noted in the last chapter that though such interference does occur, not all errors in L2 learning can be accounted for by interference from L1. L2 learning like L1 acquisition appears to proceed by stages when new bits of the language are imperfectly learned, giving rise to what has been called interlanguage. Aspek lain dari psikolinguistik yang secara langsung relevan dengan guru bahasa kedua telah disinggung dalam pembahasan analisis kontrastif. yaitu, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. Teorinya adalah bahwa dalam belajar L1 kebiasaan dalam mengamati dan performing harus dibentuk dan kebiasaan lama cenderung selingan dan mengganggu pembelajaran, sehingga siswa berbicara L2 dengan intonasi L1-nya atau urutan kata L1-nya , dan seterusnya. Kami mencatat dalam bab terakhir bahwa meskipun gangguan tersebut tidak terjadi, tidak semua kesalahan dalam pembelajaran L2 dapat dipertanggungjawabkan oleh gangguan dari L1. pembelajaran L2 seperti akuisisi L1 muncul untuk melanjutkan secara bertahap ketika bit baru dari bahasa tidak dipelajari secara sempurna, sehingga menimbulkan apa yang disebut interlanguage. CHAPTER III CONGCLUTION From chapter 2 in this report , we make some point : 1. Psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. 2. theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. 3. If the second is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. – different motivation. – Emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. Meanwhile, The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. – When we Learn first language, we also learn the concepts, while in learning the second language we seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. 4. The old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on.

Interview with a Vietnam War Veteran essays

Interview with a Vietnam War Veteran essays This interview was conducted though the internet on October 8 2002. Chuck Burns offered to share his Vietnam thoughts and experiences with us. In 1966 I dropped college and joined the Marines under threat of the draft. I wasnt sure what I was doing, but some of my buddies were going, so who was I to stay behind. Never thought of running - conservative family roots, my country, my family, my life. Run to what, run to where? I had no opinion. My country was fighting communism in a far off land. Better there than here. I knew nothing about a place called Nam. USA should have been involved with a different strategy, a better leadership, and greater support from the citizens. My training consisted of two months of orientation in a branch, (boot camp), two months of basic infantry training and 1 month of staging. I arrived at Da Nang, on a C-130 as a replacement grunt, and summarily I was assigned to a line outfit in Chu Lai. I found the country beautiful, rainy and green. In contrast the economy was inexistent at best. It was like shock treatment to what I knew. Muddy roads, trails, and villagers in pajamas. I remember when I was first taken to a battalion area. The truck passed through villages with women and kids standing on mud and waving a couple of feet away from us. My most vivid memories are those of combat and the images of combat from both sides. Most notably my brothers in arms. The chaos of the moment. Other than that, the personalities involved were varied and memorable. From the black brother from Chicago, to the hillbilly from Georgia. We all came together and knew each other. Very well. There were sailors, marines, soldiers and air men. Not to mention chopper pilots and jet pilots, medics and corpsmen. I was a Marine. Life was unbearable at first. A camping trip with no tent or warm coco. Enjoyment, was eating out of cans, sleeping and reading mail from home. No head, no clean water, no trails, an ...

Quotes by Comedian and Actress Mae West

Quotes by Comedian and Actress Mae West Mae West was best known as a comedian and actress whose bawdy plays and movies were full of double entendres and attracted the attention of industry censors. Less well known is her role as writer in many productions. Her film career- mainly at Paramount in the 1930s- seemed to stop in 1943, but she returned in the 1970s for cult classic Myra Breckinridge and Sextette. Selected Mae West Quotations I believe in censorship. I made a fortune out of it. If I asked for a cup of coffee, someone would search for the double meaning. I wrote the story myself. Its all about a girl who lost her reputation but never missed it. When Im good, Im very good. When Im bad, Im better. Too much of a good thing can be wonderful. Its hard to be funny when you have to be clean. Im a woman of very few words, but lots of action. I generally avoid temptation unless I cant resist it. It isnt what I do, but how I do it. It isnt what I say, but how I say it, and how I look when I do it and say it. Ill try anything once, twice if I like it, three times to make sure. When choosing between two evils, I always like to try the one Ive never tried before. Marriage is a great institution, but Im not ready for an institution yet. I used to be Snow White, but I drifted. Why dont you come on up and see me sometime- when Ive got nothin on but the radio. Why dont you come up sometime and see me? Im home every evening. Come up. Ill tell your fortune. Ah, you can be had. Lifes just a merry-go-round. Come on up. You might get a brass ring. Shes the kind of girl who climbed the ladder of success wrong by wrong. When women go wrong, men go right after them. There are no good girls gone wrong, just bad girls found out. Is that a banana in your pocket, or are you just happy to see me? It is better to be looked over than overlooked. Keep a diary, and someday itll keep you. To err is human, but it feels divine. Love conquers all things except poverty and toothache. Ive been rich and Ive been poor. Believe me, rich is better. Sex is emotion in motion. Virtue has its own reward, but no sale at the box office. Those who are easily shocked should be shocked more often. I like my clothes to be tight enough to show Im a woman, but loose enough to show Im a lady. Youre never too old to become younger. I like restraint, if it doesnt go too far. Im the lady who works at Paramount all day... and Fox all night. I never worry about diets. The only carrots that interest me are the number you get in a diamond. A dame that knows the ropes isnt likely to get tied up. Love thy neighbor- and if he happens to be tall, debonair, and devastating, it will be that much easier. Its all right for a perfect stranger to kiss your hand as long as hes perfect. Its not the men in my life that count, its the life in my men. Every man I meet wants to protect me. I cant figure out what from. A man in the house is worth two in the street. A girl in the convertible is worth five in the phone book. A hard man is good to find. Ten men waiting for me at the door? Send one of them home, Im tired. Give a man a free hand and hell run it all over you. A man can be short and dumpy and getting bald but if he has fire, women will like him. An ounce of performance is worth pounds of promises. Dont keep a man guessing too long- hes sure to find the answer somewhere else. Look your best- who said love is blind? Flattery will get you everywhere. Ive been things and seen places. Im no angel, but Ive spread my wings a bit. The score never interested me, only the game. Men are my hobby. If I ever got married Id have to give it up. So many men... so little time. I only like two kinds of men- domestic and imported. I only have yes men around me. Who needs no men? Save a boyfriend for a rainy day- and another, in case it doesnt rain. Some men are all right in their place- if they only knew the right places! I like a man whos good, but not too good... for the good die young, and I hate a dead one. I feel like a million tonight. But one at a time. Men are easy to get but hard to keep. Men? Sure, Ive known lots of them. But I never found one I liked well enough to marry. Besides, Ive always been busy with my work. Marriage is a career in itself and to make a success of it youve got to keep working at it. So until I can give the proper amount of time to marriage, Ill stay single. His mother should have thrown him out and kept the stork. Hes the kind of man a woman would have to marry to get rid of. Dont marry a man to reform him. Thats what reform schools are for. Opportunity knocks for every man, but you have to give a woman a ring. It takes two to get one in trouble. Too many girls follow the line of least resistance, but a good line is hard to resist. Good women are no fun. The only good woman I can recall in history was  Betsy Ross. And all she ever made was a flag. Good sex is like good Bridge. If you dont have a good partner, youd better have a good hand. Diamonds is my career. When it comes to finances, remember that there are no withholding taxes on the wages of sin. No gold-digging for me. I take diamonds! We may be off the gold standard someday. You can do what you want, but saving love doesnt bring any interest. Any time you got nothing to do and lots of time to do it, come on up. Anything worth doing is worth doing slowly. Kiss and make up- but too much makeup has ruined many a kiss. Brains are an asset to the woman in love whos smart enough to hide em. Some women pick men to marry- and others pick them to pieces. Say what you want about long dresses, but they cover a multitude of shins. Let men see whats coming to them, and women will get whats coming to them. Cultivate your curves- they may be dangerous but they wont be avoided. I didnt discover curves; I only uncovered them. The curve is more powerful than the sword. Ive been in more laps than a napkin. Id like to see Paris before I die. Philadelphia will do. I see youre a man with ideals. I better be going before youve still got them. Women with pasts interest men because men hope that history will repeat itself. Dont ever make the same mistake twice, unless it pays. Right now I think censorship is necessary; the things theyre doing and saying in films right now just shouldnt be allowed. Theres no dignity anymore and I think thats very important. The best way to behave is to misbehave. You only live once, but if you do it right, once is enough. Quote collection assembled by Jone Johnson Lewis. Each quotation page in this collection and the entire collection  © Jone Johnson Lewis. This is an informal collection assembled over many years. I regret that I am not be able to provide the original source if it is not listed with the quote.

China is one of the Main Countries that Export Their Goods to the Essay

China is one of the Main Countries that Export Their Goods to the United States - Essay Example Putting tariffs on the goods from China to the United States has been one of the most controversial debates. There has been a section of the society that have insisted on the importance of, and urgency with which goods from China should be subjected to tariffs. However, another section has warned of possible repercussions should this policy be implemented. This paper seeks to defend the decision to put tariff on tires from China. China remains the main threat to the economy of the United States. This is because it is taking up the markets that were previously a preserve for the United States. It has come up with cheap products in the world market because they have reduced cost of production due to cheap labor in their home country. This has seen them acquire various markets in the world, including the market in the United States. As Sandwick (56) says, although it is good to encourage competition within the economy in order to facilitate fair trade, some competitions are obviously un fair. This scholar points out to the fact that in the process of facilitating fair trade, care should be taken to ensure that none of the players have an unfair advantage over others. The tires from China have been made using very cheap labor back in the parent country. When they are brought to the United States, they come with prices that reflect the cost of labor. There are other firms within the United States producing the same products locally with the cost of labor being much higher than that in China. This local US firm will also bring their products to the American market taking into account the cost of production. When the two competitors meet in the same market, the Chinese firms will have an unfair advantage over other firms. Their prices will definitely be more attractive than those of the local firms. This will result in a situation where these foreign firms will cannibalize the local firms. They would take the largest share of the local market, and due to frustration, t he local firms would be forced out of the market, or be absorbed by the foreign firm. It can be very unfortunate when a foreign firm drives out the local firms from the market. The situation is worsened by the fact that these local firms cannot export to China because back in China, the prices would even be lower and these American firms would need to incur transport and other costs. Other markets around the world have also been taken by these Chinese firms with very cheap products. This would completely eliminate the local firms from the market, a fact that can lead to serious pressure on the economy. Some individuals have argued that China is one of the main countries where the United States exports their products. These pundits argue that by imposing tariffs on the Chinese goods, the Chinese government may respond by imposing the same on the American products coming to their country, a fact that would reduce profits of the American exporters. Although this argument is very valid, a mathematical calculation would still point out that the US stands to lose if the tariffs are not imposed. This is because Chinese export to the US is fast outgrowing its imports from the US. This is even worsened by the fact that the Chinese exports are so cheap, thereby posing serious threats to the US firms. It is a fact that by imposing a tax, the US exporters may feel the pinch. However, it would protect the local firms; hence protecting the local economy from a possible wipeout by the Chinese firms. Rollin argues that

How Performance Results of CMMI-Based Process Improvement Relates to Essay

How Performance Results of CMMI-Based Process Improvement Relates to CMMI - Essay Example This paper provides a summary of the article Performance Results of CMMI-Based Process Improvement and its relationship with CMMI. Summary The goals and objectives, products and services of organizations are not uniform. Nor do organizations uniformly implement CMMI models to improve their business processes or the manner in which analyse the results obtained. Irrespective of these variances the CMM-based process improvement approach is proving to be effective. Evidence of this started with the earlier special report published by the Software Engineering Institute (SEI). This article provides further empirical evidence taken from diverse sources of business activity that includes the telecommunications, financial, manufacturing and defence sectors. This article classifies performance categories into six broad areas, consisting of cost, schedule, productivity, quality, customer satisfaction, and return on investment and employing CMMI is to provide benefits in these areas. Usually org anizations choose a combination of these benefits or refinements in these benefits and the use of CMMI targets this. Through the comparison of the sum of results of quantitative performance across 35 organizations with regards to these benefits prior to the use of CMMI and subsequent this article justifies the use of CMMI towards improvement in performance results. The median improvement as a percentage with respect to cost, schedule, productivity, quality, and customer satisfaction was 34%, 50%, 61%, 48%, and 14% respectively, while in the case of returns on investment it was 40.1. According to the article through the use of CMMI organizations can achieve similar results, but there is the need for more quantitative studies to provide clarity on the circumstances that lead to these process improvements and the manner in which they can be sustained. Expanding on the demonstration of impact on performance by CMMI, this article provides greater detail on the changes that organizations report with regards to these six benefits. In the case of costs the changes include cost of final or intermediate products, costs of processes, and savings achieved model-based process improvement. In the case of schedule the improvements reported relate to schedule predictability and the reduced time required to complete the work. Improvements reported for productivity are essentially on the improvements on the amount of work that is completed over a given period of time. Reported improvements in quality relate to the reduction in the numbers of defects observed in finished or intermediary products. Improvements in customer satisfaction are based on customer satisfaction feedback received from surveys conducted. Improvements in ROI are reported in several ways that include benefit-to-cost ratios, net present value, internal rate of return, payback periods, and break even points. The article then goes onto the details of measures of process performance achieved in the case studies o f several organizations. The case studies include the organizations of 3H Technology, ABB, Hitachi Software Engineering, Motorola Global Software Group, Raytheon Network Centric Systems, North Texas, TrialStat Corporation, Tufts Health Plan, Warner Robins Air Logistic Center, The article concludes that organizations that have based their process improvement methods on CMMI models have demonstrated marked improvement in their performance, but more studies are required to understand the different reasons that contribute to this success and also generate more evidence to establish the benefits of CMMI models for process improvements and hence performance in organizations (Gibson, Goldensen & Kost, 2006). . This article relates to CMMI because it attempts to justify the use of CMMI models by organizations to